Antarctica banner
Antarctica- General
Antarctica- General Information
- Antarctica- Britannica OnlineIncludes: Physical Geography, Climate, Glaciers and Seas, Plant and Animal Life, Economic Resources (Mineral, Marine, Tourism), History (Discovery, Claims, Treaty) and Scientific Research.
- Antarctica- National GeographicAntarctica is the only continent with no permanent human habitation. There are, however, permanent human settlements, where scientists and support staff live for part of the year on a rotating basis. The Antarctic has become a symbol of climate change. Scientists and policymakers are focusing on changes in this environmentally sensitive region to push for its protection and the sustainable use of its scientific resources.
- British Antarctic Survey- Discovering AntarcticaAntarctica is a frozen, windswept continent, so hostile and remote that it has no permanent inhabitants. Scientists in Antarctica study the land and the atmosphere as well as clues buried beneath the ice. They have made many discoveries, including signs of future change that could affect us all. Take a journey through this site and begin discovering Antarctica for yourself. Each section features activities, images, video clips and fact sheets, to help you learn about this distant, frozen wilderness.
Antarctica- environment
Antarctica- Living Conditions
What is it like to live and work in Antarctica? 
Each year thousands of people apply for a job to work on Australian scientific bases in Antarctica. It’s not just scientists who are needed for the 12-14-month stint on the most isolated continent on Earth. Tradies, doctors, chefs and ice core drillers are all needed to make sure life and research continues – and for the last six months, two people have documented their experience.
- Modern Antarctic Clothing Extreme Cold Weather ClothingWarm clothing for Antarctica or any cold conditions, these principles apply to anywhere when the temperature starts to drop and the wind to blow. The "layer method" of dressing is more effective than a single bulky garment. Several layers are built up, each of which has its own part to contribute, insulating air is trapped between as well as within layers, flexibility is maintained as conditions change.
Antarctica- Political
Antarctica- Political Issues
Defence wants to put military tech in Antarctica despite Treaty ban | ABC News
The ABC has obtained notes from a private briefing given by a senior Australian Defence Force official, outlining military opportunities in Antarctica.
The treaty protecting Antarctica from mining and military activity | ABC News
Today marks exactly 60 years since the signing of the Antarctic treaty, which for decades has protected the frozen continent from mining and military activity. Australia was one of the first signatories and is still playing a key role in protecting the region's future.
Antarctica- Use
Antarctica- Uses
- Military Use: Defence wants to roll out military tech in Antarctica despite Treaty ban on military activityAustralia's Defence Force is looking to install its technology in Antarctica even though the Antarctic Treaty explicitly bans military activity.
- Mining- British Antarctic SurveyThe Environmental Protocol bans all mineral resource activities in Antarctica (other than scientific research). The control of possible mining was first raised within the Antarctic Treaty System by the UK and New Zealand in 1970 as they had been approached by minerals companies about possible commercial geophysical exploration in the Southern Ocean. The regulation of minerals activities was a very controversial issue that dominateed Antarctic politics throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.
- Scientific Research and Tourism- Human interaction in AntarcticaSo even though there are some negative effects on the environment, with good management Antarctica can remain a unique and pristine environment and teach us a lot about the rest of the world.
- Scientific Research- Cool AntarcticaAntarctica is so important to scientists because it is untouched to an extent that is not found anywhere else on earth, activities there are monitored and controlled according to internationally agreed rules.
- Scientific Research- Australian Antarctic DivisionThe Australian Antarctic Division leads the Australian Government's scientific program in Antarctica. Our research addresses critical issues including: 1. climate change 2. the human footprint in Antarctica 3. the conservation of Antarctic and Southern Ocean wildlife 4. the sustainable management of Southern Ocean fisheries in the face of increasing demands for food security caused by human population growth.
Our diverse research program covers physical and life sciences in the atmospheric, terrestrial and marine domains, as well as human biology and medical research. - Scientific Research- Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research-The study of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean and their role in the global Earth system has never been more important as the region is experiencing dramatic changes that have global implications. The Antarctic region is a matchless 'natural laboratory' for vital scientific research that is important in its own right and impossible to achieve elsewhere on the planet. SCAR encourages excellence in all aspects of Antarctic research by developing transformational scientific programmes that address compelling topics and emerging frontiers in Antarctic science of regional and global importance.
Scientific Research- Australian Antarctic Division: Leading Australia’s Antarctic Program
The Australian Antarctic Division, based in Hobart, Tasmania, is part of the Australian Government’s Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. The Division is responsible for Australia’s presence and activities in the Australian Antarctic Territory and the Southern Ocean. The Division leads Australia’s Antarctic Program.
- Tourism- Tourism in Antarctica has seen a 50% spike over the past four years, and luxury travel companies are tripping over each other in the race to capitalise on it56,000 people travelled to Antarctica during the 2018-2019 season, a 53% increase over the number of tourists in 2014-2015. Luxury travel companies are rushing to capitalise on the interest in Antarctica. In 2020 and 2021, travellers will be able to book cruise ships with heated outdoor igloo rooms as well as business-class jet service to the continent.
- Tourism- Australian Antarctic DivisionThe Australian Government views Antarctic tourism as a legitimate activity, provided it is conducted safely in an environmentally responsible manner.
Tourism to Antarctica on the rise
The number of tourists visiting antarctica has risen sharply in the last several years. Now, plans are moving forward for commercial flights to the continent.
- Fishing- British Antarctic SurveyThe industrialisation of whaling was parallelled by the industrialisation of high-seas fisheries. During the 1960s this led to the arrival of powerful fishing fleets into the Antarctic. At islands like South Georgia, where there was some form of monitoring of fisheries through the issuing of licences, the exploitation of fish, in terms of tonnage taken, reached levels that were close to those of whaling. There was little knowledge of the fish populations that were being exploited and by the late 1970s these fisheries had collapsed.
Antarctica- Human Impact
Antarctica- Human Impact
- Australian Antarctic Division- Human Impacts in AntarcticaAntarctica is often thought of as a pristine land untouched by human disturbance. Unfortunately this is no longer the case. For a little more than 100 years people have been travelling to Antarctica and in that short time most parts have been visited and we have left more than just footprints.
- Human 'footprint' on Antarctica measured for first timeBuildings alone cover more than 390 000 square metres of land while the visual footprint - the areas from which human activity can be seen - extends to more than 93 000 square kilometres.
- University of Barcelona: The fauna in the Antarctica is threatened by pathogens humans spread in polar latitudesThe fauna in the Antarctica could be in danger due the pathogens humans spread in places and research stations in the southern ocean
- Antarctica at risk from vermin and humansANTARCTICA could be invaded by rats, insects and foreign plants as global warming and human intrusion has a devastating impact on the wilderness, scientists have said.
- Effect on Sea Birds- Scientists to Study Human Activities' Influence on Sea Birds in AntarcticaScientists taking part in China's 17th expedition to Antarctica will further study the influence of human activities on sea birds and their ecological environment on King George Island in the coming year.
- Antarctica under threat from human visitors, Australian environmental scientist saysAntarctica needs to be better protected from human visitors, including tourists and researchers, a leading Australian environmental scientist says.
- Pollution and Waste- Australian Antarctic DivisionIn Antarctica, as elsewhere, it is not possible for people to visit without leaving some evidence of their presence, no matter how careful they are. The construction and operation of over fifty Antarctic stations on the continent has made an obvious, although localised, impact on the environment.
- Effect on Plants and Animals- Australian Antarctic DivisionThere is a long history of exploitation of Antarctic marine living resources through activities such as sealing, whaling and fishing, with consequent damage to the ecosystem. A number of species have become threatened by over-harvesting and illegal fishing, whilst other species are now vulnerable to the threat of extinction due to non-targeted human activities. The risk of introduced diseases to Antarctic wildlife grows as the number of visitors to the region increases.
- Effect of Tourism - Human Impacts Threats to the Environment- Cool AntarcticaAntarctica doesn't have any "residents" everyone who goes is a visitor for a short time. There are two groups of visitors who can have an impact on Antarctica, tourists and those who go as part of a national Antarctic programme.
- Effect of Tourism- Tourism in Antarctica: Edging Toward the (Risky) MainstreamTravel to one of the most remote parts of the planet is booming. What does that mean for the environment and visitor safety?
- Effect of Tourism- BBC Bitesize- Tourism- Impact on AntarcticaThere has been a steady increase in the numbers of tourists to Antarctica over the last 20 years.
- Effect of Tourism- The Guardian- Antarctica's tourism industry is designed to prevent damage, but can it last?Companies must book pre-approved sites in advance to minimize the impact on the local environment but as the number of visitors keeps growing, some countries are clamoring for tighter regulation.
- Effect of Tourism- National Geographic- Tourism in Antarctica: what does it mean for the world's last great wilderness?Antarctica, the only continent with no native population, is a place for academic cooperation between all nations: a place for science. It's also increasingly a place for tourism.
- Effect of Tourism- BBC News- Should tourists be banned from Antarctica?This season around 37,000 tourists are expected to visit Antarctica - home to about 20 million pairs of breeding penguins. But is it ethically acceptable to go on holiday to such a pristine environment?
How Antarctica's tourist boom could affect Earth's 'last great wilderness'
Antarctica was the last of the seven continents to be discovered, and it wasn’t until the late 1950s that commercial tourism began there. But now, Antarctica has become a popular travel destination, amid growing concerns about the effect that increasing numbers of people could have on its pristine environment.
- Effect of Fishing- China, Russia oppose Antarctic marine park- The AustralianRussia and China have blocked a proposed one million square kilometre marine protected area sponsored by Australia and the EU in a blow to the Antarctic environment and the cause of global co-operation.
- Effect of Fishing- Human Impacts on Antarctica and Threats to the Environment TourismThe Impact of Fisheries. Fishing is currently the only large-scale resource exploitation that is going on in Antarctica. Most other world fisheries have been over exploited even where controls are in place to prevent it, this is a concern for Antarctic fisheries too.
- Effect of Fishing- Krill fishing poses serious threat to Antarctic ecosystem, report warns- The GuardianGreenpeace finds industrial fishing taking place in the feeding grounds of whales and penguins, with vessels involved in oil spills and accidents
Krill fishing threatens Antarctic ecosystem, warn conservationists
Conservationists are warning that the industrial fishing of krill in Antarctica is threatening the future of its ecosystem.
- Effect of Whaling and Sealing- Human Impacts on Antarctica and Threats to the EnvironmentThe hunt for Whales and seals was the reason for the initial exploration of Antarctica. Reports of abundant stocks drew the adventurous from the early 1800's onwards. Before long there were major crashes in the populations of some wildlife. The Antarctic fur seal for example was almost totally wiped out at many locations by 1830 leading to a decline in the sealing industry although it continued on a smaller scale well into the 1900's.
Antarctica- Impact reduction
Antarctica- Impact Reduction
- Antarctic Treaty of 1959During the 1950’s, Cold War tensions and the quest for new resources made Antarctica a potential battleground for industrialized nations. The treaty forestalled international competition to claim and exploit Antarctica, preserving its pristine environment and promoting international cooperation.
- Introducing The Antarctic Treaty- British Antarctic SurveyThere are few places in the world where there has never been war, where the environment is fully protected, and where scientific research has priority. But there is a whole continent like this – it is the land the Antarctic Treaty parties call “… a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science”.
- Protection Agreements- Australian Antarctic Division: Environment policy and managementAustralia is strongly committed to the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment. The Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) is responsible for fulfilling that commitment on behalf of the people and government of Australia. In 1991, Australia and the other nations of the Antarctic Treaty met in Madrid to sign a historic pact to conserve the Antarctic environment, taking in Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean waters south of latitude 60 degrees South.
- No to Mining- Australia says has no plans to allow mining in AntarcticaDespite the current global appetite for minerals, which has underpinned two decades of economic growth in Australia, the country currently has no plans to allow any mining in Antarctica.
- No to Mining- Nations sign Antarctica mining accord'The consequences would be a loss of stability in Antarctica, the end of the tradition of friendly and open cooperation ... and almost certainly severe damage to the Antarctic environment,' Marshall said. 'The convention we are opening for signature (Friday) should ensure that whatever the future holds, these potential dangers will not eventuate.'
- No to Mining- Antarctica safe from mining 'indefinitely', scientist tells Hobart polar law forumA polar law symposium in Hobart has heard that the current ban on mining in the Antarctic region is indefinite.
- Waste Reduction- Polar police to take out the trash on Antarctica.Australia will offer to help nations clean up their Antarctic stations, after acting as polar policeman for a 10,000km inspection blitz that found waste and junk problems but no militarisation or mining. Evoking its right under the Antarctic Treaty to inspect other nations’ stations on the frozen continent, a team of four Australians conducted a two-month trip, inspecting 17 operations over January and February.
- Pollution Clean up- Cleaning up after human activity in Antarctica: legal obligations and remediation realities"National Antarctic Programmes do not have a strict legal obligation to remediate the Antarctic environment following human activity. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the 'Madrid Protocol') obliges parties to conduct environmental impact assessments to prevent adverse impacts on the polar environment and to 'clean up' pollution from waste disposal sites."
Solar Panels at Casey Research Station
Energy generation at Casey research station has received a solar boost with the installation of 105 solar panels on the station’s green shed. The panels will provide 30 kilowatts of renewable energy into the station’s power grid over summer. The solar farm will reduce the stations’ reliance on diesel generators, cutting fuel costs and emissions.
- Renewable Energy- Energy efficiency in Antarctica- Salem Press EncyclopediaAntarctica is the coldest, darkest, and least populated of the seven continents. If energy efficiency and renewable energy can be deployed widely here, it is hoped that they can be deployed on more populated and less isolated continents.
- Renewable Energy- Antarctica wind farm operationalThe world's southernmost wind farm, in Antarctica, is now operational. The Ross Island wind farm will supply about 11 percent of the power to New Zealand's Scott Base and the American McMurdo Station. Previously, the two sites relied on diesel-powered generators for electricity.
Princess Elizabeth- Zero Emissions Research Station
For decades, Antarctica has been a home cutting edge science and a shining example of international governance through collaboration. It was here, in the remote part of the pristine environment, that the International Polar Foundation heralded the return of Belgium to the Antarctic continent with the world's first “zero emission” scientific research station: Princess Elisabeth Antarctica.
- Princess Elizabeth- No Emissions Research StationBy taking existing technologies and using them in innovative ways, the International Polar Foundation successfully established Princess Elisabeth Antarctica as a showcase for perfect integration of energy systems. Strong Antarctic wind gusts, a harsh climate, barren landscapes, and the surrounding mountains ... the International Polar Foundation took advantage of all these apparent challenges when designing the station. By harnessing the power of the wind and the 24-hours-a-day sunshine to sustainably fuel the zero emission polar research station, means that it has almost total energy autonomy - and this means a significant cut in the logistical headache of transporting fuel.
Protecting Antarctic Giants: Whales in the Southern Ocean
Most of the world's large whale species are found in the Antarctic among a diverse marine ecosystem of over 8,000 species, more than half of which are seen nowhere else in the world. However, whale distribution and their critical feeding areas are poorly understood. As climate change and krill fishing increase in the Antarctic, the pressure to learn more about these majestic animals becomes more urgent.
East Antarctic Marine Park- BTN
We find out more about about a proposed marine park in East Antarctica and the creatures that live there.
Illegal Fishing in Antarctica Shut Down by Sea Shepherd.
At the start of Operation Icefish in 2014, Sea Shepherd set out to locate and shut down illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in Antarctica. Infamously named the "Bandit 6", the targets were six illegal poaching vessels known to Interpol and CCAMLR, who had previously managed to evade any law enforcement. Over two campaigns that spanned from 2014 to 2016, Sea Shepherd set the world record for the longest high-seas pursuit of a poaching vessel, removed 72 kilometres of illegal gillnets from the ocean, and successfully shut down all of the Bandit 6 vessels.